GUNUNG BERAPI

Gunung berapi atau gunung api secara umum adalah istilah yang dapat didefinisikan sebagai suatu sistem saluran fluida panas (batuan dalam wujud cair atau lava) yang memanjang dari kedalaman sekitar 10 km di bawah permukaan bumi sampai ke permukaan bumi, termasuk endapan hasil akumulasi material yang dikeluarkan pada saat meletus.

Lebih lanjut, istilah gunung api ini juga dipakai untuk menamai fenomena pembentukan ice volcanoes atau gunung api es dan mud volcanoes atau gunung api lumpur. Gunung api es biasa terjadi di daerah yang mempunyai musim dingin bersalju, sedangkan gunung api lumpur dapat kita lihat di daerah Kuwu, Grobogan, Jawa Tengah yang populer sebagai Bledug Kuwu.

Gunung berapi terdapat di seluruh dunia, tetapi lokasi gunung berapi yang paling dikenali adalah gunung berapi yang berada di sepanjang busur Cincin Api Pasifik (Pacific Ring of Fire). Busur Cincin Api Pasifik merupakan garis bergeseknya antara dua lempengan tektonik.

Gunung berapi terdapat dalam beberapa bentuk sepanjang masa hidupnya. Gunung berapi yang aktif mungkin berubah menjadi separuh aktif, istirahat, sebelum akhirnya menjadi tidak aktif atau mati. Bagaimanapun gunung berapi mampu istirahat dalam waktu 610 tahun sebelum berubah menjadi aktif kembali. Oleh itu, sulit untuk menentukan keadaan sebenarnya daripada suatu gunung berapi itu, apakah gunung berapi itu berada dalam keadaan istirahat atau telah mati.

Apabila gunung berapi meletus, magma yang terkandung di dalam kamar magmar di bawah gunung berapi meletus keluar sebagai lahar atau lava. Selain daripada aliran lava, kehancuran oleh gunung berapi disebabkan melalui berbagai cara seperti berikut:

* Aliran lava.
* Letusan gunung berapi.
* Aliran lumpur.
* Abu.
* Kebakaran hutan.
* Gas beracun.
* Gelombang tsunami.
* Gempa bumi.


Tingkat isyarat gunung berapi di Indonesia
Status Makna Tindakan
AWAS

* Menandakan gunung berapi yang segera atau sedang meletus atau ada keadaan kritis yang menimbulkan bencana
* Letusan pembukaan dimulai dengan abu dan asap
* Letusan berpeluang terjadi dalam waktu 24 jam



* Wilayah yang terancam bahaya direkomendasikan untuk dikosongkan
* Koordinasi dilakukan secara harian
* Piket penuh

SIAGA

* Menandakan gunung berapi yang sedang bergerak ke arah letusan atau menimbulkan bencana
* Peningkatan intensif kegiatan seismik
* Semua data menunjukkan bahwa aktivitas dapat segera berlanjut ke letusan atau menuju pada keadaan yang dapat menimbulkan bencana
* Jika tren peningkatan berlanjut, letusan dapat terjadi dalam waktu 2 minggu



* Sosialisasi di wilayah terancam
* Penyiapan sarana darurat
* Koordinasi harian
* Piket penuh

WASPADA

* Ada aktivitas apa pun bentuknya
* Terdapat kenaikan aktivitas di atas level normal
* Peningkatan aktivitas seismik dan kejadian vulkanis lainnya
* Sedikit perubahan aktivitas yang diakibatkan oleh aktivitas magma, tektonik dan hidrotermal



* Penyuluhan/sosialisasi
* Penilaian bahaya
* Pengecekan sarana
* Pelaksanaan piket terbatas

NORMAL

* Tidak ada gejala aktivitas tekanan magma
* Level aktivitas dasar



* Pengamatan rutin
* Survei dan penyelidikan


Jenis gunung berapi berdasarkan bentuknya

Stratovolcano
Tersusun dari batuan hasil letusan dengan tipe letusan berubah-ubah sehingga dapat menghasilkan susunan yang berlapis-lapis dari beberapa jenis batuan, sehingga membentuk suatu kerucut besar (raksasa), kadang-kadang bentuknya tidak beraturan, karena letusan terjadi sudah beberapa ratus kali. Gunung Merapi merupakan jenis ini.
Perisai
Tersusun dari batuan aliran lava yang pada saat diendapkan masih cair, sehingga tidak sempat membentuk suatu kerucut yang tinggi (curam), bentuknya akan berlereng landai, dan susunannya terdiri dari batuan yang bersifat basaltik. Contoh bentuk gunung berapi ini terdapat di kepulauan Hawai.
Cinder Cone
Merupakan gunung berapi yang abu dan pecahan kecil batuan vulkanik menyebar di sekeliling gunung. Sebagian besar gunung jenis ini membentuk mangkuk di puncaknya. Jarang yang tingginya di atas 500 meter dari tanah di sekitarnya.
Kaldera
Gunung berapi jenis ini terbentuk dari ledakan yang sangat kuat yang melempar ujung atas gunung sehingga membentuk cekungan. Gunung Bromo merupakan jenis ini.


)@__@

[sunting] Klasifikasi gunung berapi di Indonesia

Kalangan vulkanologi Indonesia mengelompokkan gunung berapi ke dalam tiga tipe berdasarkan catatan sejarah letusan/erupsinya.

* Gunung api Tipe A : tercatat pernah mengalami erupsi magmatik sekurang-kurangnya satu kali sesudah tahun 1600.
* Gunung api Tipe B : sesudah tahun 1600 belum tercatat lagi mengadakan erupsi magmatik namun masih memperlihatkan gejala kegiatan vulkanik seperti kegiatan solfatara.
* Gunung api Tipe C : sejarah erupsinya tidak diketahui dalam catatan manusia, namun masih terdapat tanda-tanda kegiatan masa lampau berupa lapangan solfatara/fumarola pada tingkah lemah.

"Call of Duty: Black Ops" Sets Video Game Sales Record By Michelle Castillo on November 12, 2010

Activision was wrong when they predicted that Call of Duty: Black Ops wouldn't sell as well as their highly-successful previous title in the franchise Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2. But when you rake in $360 million dollars within 24 hours, I'm guessing this error in estimation is not something that they're really worried about.

(More on TIME.com: Why the Cuban Government Is Speaking Out Against "Call of Duty: Black Ops")

The Cold War-era set game sold 5.6 million copies in the first day, making it the biggest launch in video game entertainment history. Modern Warfare 2 shocked sales analysts when it sold 4.7 million copies within 24 hours and brought in $310 million, but Black Ops easily shattered that record. The company said they are on track to overtake the 5-day $550 million global sales record of the previous title.

(More on TIME.com: Can "Call of Duty: Black Ops" Outsell "Modern Warfare 2"?)

Though the reviews are overall positive, the company already has had to release a patch for PC gamers to help deal with the massive amounts of people logging in. It seems like sales will be full steam ahead for Black Friday, Cyber Monday and the holiday season, for those of us who were too lazy to go to the store to pick up a copy on the release date.


Read more: http://techland.com/2010/11/12/call-of-duty-black-ops-sets-video-game-sales-record/#ixzz15AioSuwN

Rockstar Games Unveils First Look at L.A. Noire Read more: http://techland.com/2010/11/11/rockstar-games-unveils-first-look-at-l-a-noire/#ixzz15AhJyf

The follow-up to Rockstar Games' best-selling Red Dead Redemption goes further west and even darker than the publishers hit Western. After a long silence, the new trailer for upcoming crime drama L.A. Noire shows off an uncanny performance capture system that makes in-game characters seem alive like never before.

Read more: http://techland.com/2010/11/11/rockstar-games-unveils-first-look-at-l-a-noire/#ixzz15AhbHMnX

Not much gets introduced by way of characters, gameplay or story in the clip, but Rockstar's promising a divergence from their usual gunplay-heavy game design model in L.A. Noire. Supposedly there will be detection mechanics in the game that let you find and track clues as you try to solve cases. Players will also need to read characters' facial expressions to try and discern if they're telling the truth. Here's the official description from Rockstar:

A dark detective thriller set against the backdrop of Hollywood's Golden Age, L.A. Noire features Mad Men's Aaron Stanton as lead officer, Cole Phelps, Fringe's John Noble, and a cast of esteemed actors, working alongside director Michael Uppendahl (Mad Men) in a twisted tale of murder, corruption and jazz.

No specific release date for the game was given but it will ship for Playstation 3 and Xbox 360 sometime next year. We'll have more on L.A. Noire as news develops.


Read more: http://techland.com/2010/11/11/rockstar-games-unveils-first-look-at-l-a-noire/#ixzz15Ahg3pJP

IMANDANA' COOL: How George Lucas Changed Special Effects in Filmmaking Forever By Michelle Castillo on November 12, 2010 Read more: http://techland.com/2010/11/12/h

IMANDANA' COOL: How George Lucas Changed Special Effects in Filmmaking Forever By Michelle Castillo on November 12, 2010 Read more: http://techland.com/2010/11/12/h

How George Lucas Changed Special Effects in Filmmaking Forever By Michelle Castillo on November 12, 2010 Read more: http://techland.com/2010/11/12/h

When a young filmmaker named George Lucas pitched his idea for a space saga, FOX and most people were wondering how he was going to pull it off. The movie called for more cuts, action sequences and imaginative landscapes that had never been done before. When the studio asked him how he planed to do that, though Lucas had no clue he boldly told them he would figure it out.

"WIth Star Wars I want to do an action picture," George Lucas said, repeating his original intentions for the iconic film in Creating the Impossible. The Encore documentary, which airs Nov. 12, focuses on the revolutionary special effects company ILM. "I want to do something where I can pan with the space ship. I want to do quick cuts. There's a lot of rhythm, a lot of pace. There's a lot of movement on the screen. I want it to be very cinematic, and at that point in time that was impossible."

To complete this monumental task, Lucas founded his own special effects company to complete the difficult scenes needed in Star Wars. The company was named Industrial Light and Magic, better known as ILM. Over 300 films later, ILM has proven to be the industry leader in special effects, one of the first purveyors of computer generated imagery and the original parent company of animation giant Pixar. From Jurassic Park to Avatar, the company has put their stamp on some of the biggest films of all time.

(More on TIME.com: Darth Vader: "Luke, I Knew I Was Your Father Two Years Early")

Oscar-nominated director Leslie Iwerks, whose works include The Pixar Story, went back to the early days of ILM to trace the evolution of the company and the special effects medium for the Encore documentary. Iwerks said she grew up reading Cinefex Magazine, and was personally interested in the subject because she grew up on the Disney backlot where her grandfather headed the animation company's visual effects process lab. Lucas' visionary role in special effects change things forever, she said, from digital editing to the computer graphics revolution. "He knew what was needed back in the 70s with film and where things could go," she said to Techland.



"George was smart to make ILM a house that could serve other filmmakers and not just him," Iwerks explained. "He hasn't done as many films personally, so it makes sense that [the company should] make special effects for other filmmakers. The company gets better and better through the process of working on different films."

For example, the pod race scene in Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace required new techniques to figure out how to replicate the terrain of Tatooine. In the movie, the filmmakers would need gigantic miniatures if they wanted to shoot in a real location and make it look like the characters were moving really fast. Using matte paintings and models would make traveling through the desert look unrealistic. Instead they used a method that combined real photography and computer graphics, which was later utilized in Avatar to give Pandora its look.

(: Official: 3D Star Wars Starting 2012)



Before ILM most studios had their own in-house special effects teams. Lucas' company was one of the first to open their doors to filmmakers. Since the company was willing to experiment with new techniques, ILM found itself in the forefront of many cutting-edge technologies. From the unheard of over 360 special effects shots needed for Star Wars to the first computer graphics visual effect in Star Trek: Wrath of Khan, the company found new ways to solve their problems. "Those were massive tasks that no one was going to undertake," said ILM's John Knoll to Techland. The visual effects supervisor has worked on films including Captain Eo, Avatar, The Abyss and Star Wars Episodes I, II, and III.

"George always seemed pretty confident. He would always say, ‘Oh, you guys will figure it out!'” Knoll said.

Smaller films like Forrest Gump have also benefited from ILM's expertise. The famous scene where Gump is playing ping pong is actually an ILM effect Recently, Knoll worked on Confessions of a Shopaholic. In one scene, the film has talking mannequins and Knoll said he jumped on the opportunity to test out some new techniques.

(More on Time.com: New Star Wars Movies? Don't Hold Your Breath)

Perhaps ILM's greatest achievement lies in the realm of inspiring new inventions and companies. Pixar was formed out of ILM's computer animation department. Knoll himself was inspired by photo editing software he saw at ILM. When his brother told Knoll about his PhD thesis regarding a photo editing program for home computers, the two worked together and co-created Photoshop. “ILM was the first place I went to that had a computer graphics department,” Knoll said. “So in a way, George had kind of fostered the creation of Photoshop.”



“His influence is huge because not only the technical contributions of ILM, but the people that have come through the company,” Iwerks said.

(More on TIME.com: Lando Calrissian Thinks Pacifists Suck)

“[Special Effects] is where the magic really unfolds, and you realize how impressive this group of people really are,” she added. “Breaking down every single frame, it's all cared for. They're all filmmakers there.”


Read more: http://techland.com/2010/11/12/how-george-lucas-changed-special-effects-in-filmmaking-forever/#ixzz15AePYxeQ

Galaxy Tab Torn Apart, Shows It's Mostly Battery Read more: http://techland.com/2010/11/12/galaxy-tab-torn-apart-shows-its-mostly-battery/#ixzz15AdfY

Ever wondered what the inside of a tablet looks like? The fine folks at iFixit recently tore the new Samsung Galaxy Tab apart to reveal a big, fat battery surrounded by a C-shaped logic board that handles everything else.

As computer components get exponentially smaller and faster all the time, gadgets' weight and thickness are still hamstrung by battery technology. (More on Time.com: 100 Gadgets of All-TIME)

Lithium ion batteries have been a mainstay in consumer electronics for a while now, and lithium polymer batteries are also beginning to emerge more and more. Lithium polymer batteries can be shaped more easily than lithium ion ones, making them more ideal for tight spaces, but they often aren't user-replaceable since they don't have to adhere to the brick-like shape as closely as lithium ion batteries. This battery in the Galaxy Tab is a lithium ion one.

It's interesting to see how little space the brains of the tablet actually take up.

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The chip outlined in red is the 16GB flash memory card, the orange is the power management chip, the yellow is the 1GHz processor, the aqua is the 3G modem, the blue handles audio, and the pink is the RF transceiver, which handles the communication between the 3G chip and the cell towers.


Read more: http://techland.com/2010/11/12/galaxy-tab-torn-apart-shows-its-mostly-battery/#ixzz15Ado2T5F

A Mass Grave Raises Ghosts of Romania's Holocaust Past

One day in 1941, Vasile Enache was tending his cows in the forest of Vulturi, near the city of Iasi, 260 miles (420 km) northeast of Bucharest, when he heard people sobbing. He went to investigate and saw hundreds of civilians being marched through the forest by Romanian army soldiers. Enache didn't know it at the time, but he was witnessing part of Romania's "Iasi pogrom," which resulted in the deaths of an estimated 14,000 Jews.

For almost 70 years, successive Romanian governments have downplayed the nation's role in the Holocaust. But now a suspected mass grave has been found in the Vulturi forest, and some are hoping that the discovery will help Romania face up to one of the darkest periods in its history. (See pictures of Auschwitz after 65 years.)

Rumors about a mass grave in the Vulturi forest had been circulating for years; when a similar grave was found near Iasi in 1945, it led to a trial that ended with several top military commanders being sentenced to jail. After persuading Enache to show him the exact location of the Vulturi grave, local historian Adrian Cioflinca organized a team of people from Romania's Elie Wiesel National Institute for Studying the Holocaust to start excavating the site last month. They uncovered the remains of 16 bodies — including the skeletons of children, a lady's shoe and Romanian-army bullets from 1939 — but have since called a halt to the dig while they wait for rabbis to bless the site.

Now 86, Enache is a bit wobbly on his legs, but his eyes are still clear blue, and his memory of what happened that day in 1941 is fresh. He describes how he was grabbed by a couple of Romanian soldiers who said, "You are a Jew! Come with us." They arrived at a series of deep graves where the civilians were made to sit down, 10 at a time, and then shot. Others were ordered into the grave to arrange the bodies so more victims could be thrown in. The killings continued all day, but Enache managed to convince his captors that he was a local, an Orthodox Christian, and when this was confirmed by the local forester, he was released. (See pictures of Adolf Hitler's rise to power.)

The Vulturi forester who saved Enache died in 1945, but his daughter still lives nearby. Sitting in her kitchen, Lucia Baltaru describes what she remembers from 1941, when she was 6 years old. "We used to go and play at the grave," she says. "There was a thin layer of soil over the grave, and when we played, the bodies would move around. I think there are thousands of bodies buried there."

The site is currently sealed off by the Romanian police, who are guarding the bones and artifacts still on the site, and both journalists and the public are forbidden access. Outside the forest, an old couple had walked up from a nearby village to look at the grave. Ioan Aftanase was 7 years old in 1941 and vividly remembers columns of civilians being marched through the village. "They were in a terrible state," he says. "They were obviously hungry and thirsty and were being marched to their deaths. It was a terrible thing to do." During Romania's communist regime, it was dangerous to talk about the country's role in the Holocaust, and as a result, says Aftanase, "the young people today in the village have no idea about what happened in this forest." (See a brief history of World War II movies.)

Elie Wiesel, a Romanian-born survivor of Auschwitz, has described Romania's approach to the Holocaust as "ambivalent." Anti-Semitism was virulent in the country from the mid–19th century to the end of World War II. In 2004, President Ion Iliescu apologized for Romania's role in the Holocaust, saying in a speech before the International Commission for the Study of the Holocaust in Romania, "The Holocaust was one of those serious historical issues which was avoided both during the communist period and after 1990."

According to the 1930 Census, there were 759,000 Jews in Romania before World War II. Historians estimate that 280,000 to 380,000 were killed by Romanian forces during the war, mainly in the areas of Moldova and Ukraine they occupied as part of the German thrust into the Soviet Union. Today there are fewer than 10,000 Jews living in Romania.

The communist regime, which was in power in Romania from 1945 to 1989, developed a strong nationalistic streak which, according to Holocaust historian Radu Ioanid, "tried to dilute or completely deny the responsibility of Romanians in the slaughter of the Jews, placing all the blame on the Germans." The education system has changed little since the fall of communism, and many Romanians still believe that their country's role in the Holocaust was minimal. (See a TIME cover story on the Holocaust.)

This ambivalence is reflected in the Romanian media coverage of the latest mass-grave discovery. The country's main private TV channels are skeptical, basing their reports on a statement by the chief prosecutor in Iasi, Cornelia Prisacaru, who said, "At this moment we don't know if these are civilian or military bodies. Or could they be Russian or German soldiers? The front line was in that area during World War II. We can't confirm that they are Jews." But such comments make no sense to the investigators who found so many civilian items in the grave — or to Vasile Enache, who still remembers being dragged off to the killing ground on the assumption that he was a Jew.